以下摘自：http://books.google.com/books?id=Omh-Gi8_K9kC&printsec=frontcover&dq=knowing+what+students+know&source=bl&ots=Basr_sFtWc&sig=lTJRqtJei-ZCrdh1oASyfI4dcTU&hl=en&ei=HB6HTbbXNdTAtgfC083EBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CDwQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=true
Assessment is always aprocess of reasoning from evidence.
Every assessment, regardless of its purpose, rests on 3 pillars:
- a model of how students represent knowledge and develop competence in the subject domain,
- tasks or situations that allow one to observe students' performance,
- and an interpretation method for drawing inferences from the performance, and an interpretation method for drawing infereces from the performance evidence thus obtained.
Three foundational elements, comprising what is refered to in this report as the "assessment triangle", underlie all assessments. These three elements--cognition, observation, and interpretation--must be explicitly connected and designed as a coordinated whole.
A model of cognition and learning should serve as the cornnerstone of the assessment design process. This model should be based on the best available understanding of how students represent knowledge and develop competence in the domain.
在生物学领域，学生是如何表征他们的知识和发展他们的知识的呢？与其他学科有何不同?
The model of learning can serve as a unifying element-a nucleus that brings cohesion to curriculum, instruction, and assessment. The cohesive function is a crucial one because educational assessment does not exist in isolation, but must be aligned with curriculum and instruction if it is to support learning.
此外课堂教学的内容和评价应该与大规模考试相一致，如果不一致就会产生矛盾，结果会使得教师和学生都难堪。Thus there is a need for better alignment among assessments used for different purposes and in different contexts.
现代学习理论认为，知识是在头脑中表征、组织和加工的。此外社会化学习以及参与性实践也给予了很大的关注。因此评价的实施应该不仅不仅关注考核基本技能和知识点，而应该包容学生更为复杂的学习成就。
短时记忆，长时记忆。关键的问题是人如何唤醒长时记忆中的知识并用它分析目前和信息和解决问题。因此，在正常认知范围内，对人是如何在长期记忆中组织信息的评估要比对短时记忆能力的评估更为重要。
Understanding the contents of long-term memory is especially critical for determing what people know; how they know it; and how the are able to use that knowledge to answer questions, solve problems, and engage in additional learning.
What one know is domain- and task-specific and organized into structures known as schemas. 评价应该评估一个人在有哪些图式，在什么情况下他会把某些信息认为是相关的。
评价应评估个体已有的图式和对图式的选择应用
